???????????? ?????????

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Senatus Populusque Romanus (?????????); Imperium Romanum (?????????); Βασιλε?α ?ωμα?ων (?????????); Basileía Rhōmaíōn;
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	???????????? ????????? ?? ??? 117 ?? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? (???? ??????? ???????).
???? ????	????? ??????? ??????
?????	????; ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? 27 ?.? ??? 286 ?. ??? ??????? ??? ?? 286 ? ??? 476 ?; ??????????; (286–402? ?????); ??????; (402–476? ?????); ?????????; (286–330? ?????); ???????????; (330–1453? ?????);
???? ?????	??????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ???????
????? ???????	?????????? ??????????
???? ??????	???????; (????? ??????? ??? 610); ???????; (????? ??????? ??? 610); ?????? ?????????/???????;
???????	??????? ???????????? - ????? ?????? ??????; (??? 380 ?); ???????? ???????; (????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ?????????); (?? 380 ?);
????????
????? (?????)	27 ?.? - 14 ?
??????	98-117
????????	270–275
???????????	284–305
??????? ?????	306–337
????????? ?????	379–395
?????? ?????	474–480
??????? ?????	475–476
???????? ?????	527–565
??????? ??????	780–797
????? ??????	976–1025
??????? ?????? ???	1449–1453
???????
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?????? ?????????	????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????
????? ???????? ????????? ?????????	32–30 ?.?
????? ????????????	30–2 ?.?
???? ??????????? ???????	11 ???? 330
??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????	17 ????? 395
???? ???????????? ????????? ???????	4 ?????? 476
???? ?????????? ?????? ?????	25 ????? 480
?????? ???????? ???????	12 ????? 1204
??????? ???????????	25 ????? 1261
???? ??????????? ?? ?? ??????????	29 ???? 1453
???? ???????	15 ????? 1461
???????
25 ?.?	2?750?000 ??2 (1 ???2)
117 ?	5?000?000 ??2 (2 ???2)
390 ?	4?400?000 ??2 (2 ???2)
??????
25 ?.?	56?800?000 ????; ???????: 20?7 /??2 (53?5 /???2)
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????? ??? ??	???????; ??????; ???????; ??? ????; ??????; ??????; ??????; ?????; ??? ??????; ?????????; ???????; ?????; ?????????; ????????; ; ???????; ??????????; ??????; ???????; ??????; ???????; ???????; ???????; ??????? ???????; ??????; ????? ??????; ????; ???????; ????????; ???????; ?????; ?????; ????????; ?????; ?????; ???????; ??????; ?????; ??????; ???????; ???; ????????; ?????; ??????; ????; ?????; ??????; ??????; ????????; ????; ???????; ????????; ??????
	????? ????? - ?????

???? ???????????? ????????? ((??????????: Imperium Rōmānum)? ???? ??????: [?m?p?.ri.?: ro:?ma:.n?:]; ????? ???????? ?????? ??????: Βασιλε?α τ?ν ?ωμα?ων? ???????: Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn) ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ???????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ????????. ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? (27 ?.? - 286 ?). ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ???????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????????? ????????? ??????? (?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????) ???? ???????????? ????????? ??????? (????? ????????? ??????? ?? ???????????). ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ??? 476 ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????????? ??? ??????????? (?? ??????)? ??? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????. ???? ???? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????????^[??????????]? ??? ???? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???????????? ?????????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????.

????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? (????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???????) ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????????. ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ?? ????????? ?? 44 ?.?. ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 31 ?.?. ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????????? ??? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???????. ???? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? 27 ?.?? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????????.

??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????????? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? (??????? ?????????). ???? ???????????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? (98-117 ?). ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? (177-192). ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ??? ??? ?????????? ???????? (270–275). ?? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? 286 ?. ??? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? 313 ?. ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???????????? ????????? ???????. ?? ???? ??????^[??????????] ?? ?? ?????????? ????^[??????????] ??????? ????????? ?? 476 ? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ???????- ??? ?????????? (???????? ??????) ????? ???????? ?????? ?? 480 ?. ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ???????????? ????????? ???????. ???????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? 1453.^{[? 8]}

????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???. ????? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????^[??????????] ??? ???????????? ????????? ???????. ??? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????????. ??? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ????????? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????????. ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????????. ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????.

???????

?????? ?? ????????? ??? ????????????

???? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???????. ??? ???? ???? ????????? ???????????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ????????.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] ?? ??? ????????? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????? (??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????) ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????????. ????? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? (??????? ??????? ??? ?? ???) ???????? ?? ???? ??????.^[11] ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ????????.^[8]^[12]^[13]^[14] ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???? ????? ????????? (??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ????).^[15] ?? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? (??????)? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????????? (?????????????) ??? ??? ????? (?? ??? ?????) ??? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????.^[16]

???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???????. ??? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ?????????. ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? 44 ?.?? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ????? ????? ??? ???????. ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? 42 ?.? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????????. ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 31 ?.?? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????????. ?? 27 ?.? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????????? (???????? ??????) ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? (??? ??? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? 27 ?.? ??? 284 ?)? ?????? ????? ??????? (????????). ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????. ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????.^[17] ????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???????. ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? (???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????)? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????.

???? ??????

?? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????: ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????????.

????? ??????? ??? 200 ???? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? (????? ??????? ?????????). ???? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ???????????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???. ???? ?????????? ?? ????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ????.^[18] ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????????. ?????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ????? - ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? - ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? 69? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ???????. ???? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????: ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????.

?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????

?? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??? 180? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????????^[19] ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????.^[20]^[21]

?? 212? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???????. ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ???????^[??????????] ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?????????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????. ???????? ????????? ????????.^[22] ?? ????? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????. ???? ??? ???????? (???? ??? ?? 270-275) ???????????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?????????. ???? ??????????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ???? ??? ??? ??????????? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ???????.^[23] ??? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????. ??? ??? ??? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????.

??? ????????? ???????????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???????.^[24] ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???????. ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ??????????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ???????. ???? ???? ?? ???????? ??????????? ???????????????? ????? ???????????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????????? ?????. ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????????. ???? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 395 ? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ????????????.^[25]

???? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????. ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????. ??? ???? ???????????? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? 476? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????^[??????????] ??? ???? ????? ???????? ???????.^[26] ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????? (??? ??? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????)? ???? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????.^[27]^[28]^[29]

???????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? 29 ???? 1453 ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? "??????" ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????.^[30]^[31]

????????? ?????????????

???? ???????????? ????????? ????? ?? ???? ????????????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????.^[34] ??????? ????????? (??????????: imperium sine fine) (??????????? ??? ??????^[35]) ???? ?? ???????????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????????????. ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??????.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39] ?? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???? ???????????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????.^{[? 9]} ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????????????? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ????????. ?? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ???????: ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????.^[40]

?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ?????????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????. ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????^[??????????] ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????.^[41] ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????????? ????????? (????? ????? ??????^[??????????]) ???? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????????????.^[42] ???? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????.^[43]

???? ???????????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? (??? 98-117)?^[39] ????? ????? 5 ?????? ??????? ????.^[4]^[6] ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? 55 ? 60 ????? ????^[44] ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??????^[45] ?????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???.^[46] ????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? 70 ????? ??? ???? ?? 100 ?????.^[47]^[48] ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???????????? - ???? ??????????? ???????? - ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???.^[49]

??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????:

??? ????? ???????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??????–??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????, ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???. ???? ???????????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ... ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?? mare nostrum—'?????'.?

????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????????? ????? ?? ???????. ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? (fines)? ??? ????? ?????? (??????).^[39] ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ????????.^[12] ???? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????.^[50]^[51]^[52]

??????

???? ??? ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????????.^[53]^[54]^[55] ??? ??? ??????? ??????? (??? 222-235)? ???? ?????? ???????^[??????????] ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????.^[56] ???? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????????????^[57] ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????????.^[58]^[59] ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ??????????? ???? ?????.^[60] ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????.^[61]^[62] ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???????.^[63]

??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????.^[65] ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? (Latinitas)? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????.^[66] ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????????.^[66] ???? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ??????????.^[67]

?? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ?????????.^[68] ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ??????????.^[69]^[70] ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???????????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? 212 ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ?????????.^[71]

?? ??? ????????? ??????? ??? ?????????? ??????????? (??? 284-305) ??? ????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????? (??????????: hē kratousa dialektos) (???? ??????) ???? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ???? ??????.^[72] ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????.^[73]

?????? ??????? ??????? ??????

???? ???????? ??? ????????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ????????. ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????.^[74] ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? Libyco-Berber ? Punic ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ???????? (????? ????? ????????). ???? ?????? ???????-???????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????????.^[75] ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? (???? ??????) ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ?????.^[76]

??? ????? ??????^[??????????] ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????????????. ??? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? 93 ??? 132 ?? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????????. ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????.^[77]

????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????.^[75] ?? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?????. ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ?????????.^[78]^[79]^[80]

??? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ????????? ???????????^[??????????] ?????????^[??????????] ?????????? ??????????^[??????????]? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????. ?????? ???? ???? ?? 900 ????? ??? ????????? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??????.

???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? 17? ?????????^[??????????] ???????? ????????? ??????????? ??? ????? ??????.^[81]^[82]

??? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???????. ?????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????.^[62] ??? ????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ????? ????????^[??????????] ?? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????????????.^[62]^[75] ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????^[??????????]? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????^[??????????] ?? ?????????.^[83] (??? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ?????????^[??????????]? ???? ????????-?????????^[??????????].) ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???????? -??????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????- ?? ??????? ????? ??????????. ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ????.^[62]

?? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ???. ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????????^[84] ???????^[85] ??? ????????.^[86] ???? ????????? ???????^[??????????]? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????????^[??????????]? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????.^[85] ??? ????? (331-420) ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????^[??????????] ?????? ?? ????.^[87] ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????.^[88] ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ?????. ???? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????????????^[??????????]? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????^[89] ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????^[??????????] ??? 560 ? 575? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????.^[90] ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???. ?? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? (??? ?? ??? "oui"?^[91] ???? ?????)?^[91] ????? ???????^[92]^[93] ?????????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????.^[91]^[94]^[95]

???????

???? ???????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????.^[96] ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????? - ??? ????????? ?????????^[??????????] ?????????^[??????????] ????????? ?????? - ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? (???????? ?????? ?????????).^[97]

??? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????.^[98] ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????.^[99] ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????. ?? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????????.^[100] ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? (amicitia)? ?????? ???????^[??????????]? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????????.^[101] ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????????.^[102]

??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?? ?????????????^[103]^[104] ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????.^[105] ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??????.^[106] ?? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ????????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????^[??????????] ????????? (???????^[??????????] ??????????) ???? ????? ?????? ??????: ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????^[107] ??? ?????? ?????????^[108] ?????? ?????^[??????????].^[109]

?????? ?????????

????? ??????? ?????^[??????????]? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??????? (liberi) ?? ?????? (servi).^[110]^[111] ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ????????. ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? (??? ius Latinum? "???? ?????????^[??????????]")? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????????. ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???????^[??????????]? ??? ??? ??????.^[112] ?? ??? 212 ?? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???????. ??? ???????? ????????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????????? ???? ?????????.^[113]

?????? ?? ??????? ????????

???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ?????????????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????. ???? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ex duobus civibus Romanis natos (???????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????).^{[? 10]} ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? (???????) ??? ??????. ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???????????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ????.^[114]

?????? ??? ??????:???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? (60-79 ?)? ?????? ???????
?????? ??? ??????: ????? ?????? (????? ????? ????????) ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ??????.

?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????^[??????????] ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??????. ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????????.^[115] ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????:^[116]^[117] ??? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????????^[118] ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????.^[119] ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ????? (univira) ????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ???????^[??????????]? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????.^[120]

????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????.^[121]^[122]^[123] ????? ???? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????.^[124]

???? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ????????^[??????????] ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????. ?? ????? ?????^[??????????]? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ?????????.^[125] ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? (??????) ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????.^{[? 11]} ???? ?????? ??? ???????: ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???? (?? ???????^[??????????]-(??????????: Jus trium liberorum)).

???? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????^[126]^[127] ??? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????. ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????: ?? ????? ??? ?????^[??????????] ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????????^[??????????]? ????? ?????.^[128]

?????? ????????

?? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ??? 35? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????^[129] ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????????.^[130] ???? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????????.^[131] ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?????. ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????. ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? 10 ? 20? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????????. ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????????.^[132]^[133] ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????. ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????.^[134]

???? ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????.^[135] ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???????. ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????. ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?????????? ????? ????? ????? ???????^[??????????].^[136]^[137] ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ????????^[??????????]? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ???? ?? ????????? ???????? ??????.^[138] ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????.^[139]

?? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????^[140] ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? (??????????: peculium) ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??. ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????: ???? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????.^[141] ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????.^[142]

?? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???????. ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????.^[143] ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????.^[144]^[145]

???????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????.^[146]^[147] ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ... ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? (??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????????) ????????? ???? ??????? ?????? 5? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????. ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ??? ????? ?????? (????? ???????) ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ???????.^[148] ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ????: ???? ??? ????? ???? (17.2 ?????? ? 17.9 ??????).^[149]

???? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????. ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????????^[??????????]. ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ???????.^[132] ???? ?????? ?? ??? ? ??? ?????? (??????????: Vernae)? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????. ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????.^[150]^[151]

?? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????. ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??? 2 ?.?? ??? ????? (???? ????? ???????^[??????????]) ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????.^[152]

????????

?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????. ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? (libertas)? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???????.^[153] ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? (??????????: libertas) ????? (??????????: "libertus") (?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (??????????: liberta)) ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? (patronus): ????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????. ????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? (??????????: libertini)? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????? (??????????: libertus) ?(??????????: libertinus) ????????.^[154]^[155]

?? ??? ???????? (??????????: libertinus) ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????????^[??????????] ?? ????? ??????????. ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???????? (???? ??????)? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????.^[155] ?? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????.

???? ???????? ???????? - ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????????? ?? ?????? - ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????? ??????. ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?????^[??????????]. ???? ????????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ?????????^[??????????] ?? ???????? ^[??????????] ?? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????. ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????????? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????????.

???? ??????

???? ?????? ????????? ordo (????? ordines) ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????. ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? (??????????: ordo) ???? ????? ???? ?????. ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ??????????. ???? ???? ? ???? ?????????^[??????????]? ???????? ????? ???? ?????????? ((??????????: bouleutai))? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????.

?? ??? ????????? "?????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??????^[??????????]. ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????.^[156]^[157] ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???????^[??????????] ?? ????. ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? 600 ??? ?? ???? ???????.^[158]^[159] ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ????. ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????????: ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ??????.^[160]

?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????. ??? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??????.^[161] ?? ???? ????????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????????^[??????????]? ??? ??? ?????? ????????.^[162] ????? ??? ????? ???????^[??????????] (193-235)? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????.^[163] ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? (patria).^[160]

??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ????. ???? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? (??????? ??????)? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????????.^{[? 12]} ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? 400.000 ????????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????.^[164] ??? ????? ??? 28 ?.? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? 14 ?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????.^{[? 13]}^[165] ???? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ????? (?????? ????? ????????^[??????????]) ????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????????????.^[166]^[167]

???? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????????. ???? ???????????? ????????? ????? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????.^[168]^[169] ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??????????. ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????? (??????????: munera)? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ??????. ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ????.^[170] ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???????????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????.^[171]

?? ???????????? ???????? ???????^[??????????] (???????? ??????????) ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ?????????^[??????????]? ?????? ???????.^[172] ?? ??????? ??????? (??????????: clarissimus) ((??????????: lamprotatos)) ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ??????.^[173] ?????? ??????? ?????????. ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ???????????? ??? ???? ?????? (?????????? (??????????: sexagenarius)? 60.000 ????????? ?? ?????? ???????? (??????????: centenarius)? 100.000 ?????????? ????????(??????????: ducenarius)? 200.000 ?????????). ??? ????? (??????????: eminentissimus)? ??????? ??????? (??????????: exoch?tatos) ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????. ??? ???? ????????? ?? ????????? ?????? ??(??????????: perfectissimi)? ??????? ?????? (??????????: diasêmotatoi)? ?????? ??? ???? (??????????: egregii)? ????????? (??????????: kratistos).^[174]

???? ???????

?? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ? ??? ?????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? (??????????: honestiores) ?????? ????? ????? ?????? (??????????: humiliores). ???? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?????????.^[175]^[176] ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? 212 ? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???????.^[176]^[177]^[178] ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? (??????????: dignitas) ?? ??????? ?????: ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????.^[176]

???????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ????????? ??? ?? ????? ????????^[179]^[180] ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ???????^[??????????] ????????? ?????? ?? ??????.^[181] ?? ????? ????????????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????^[??????????].^[176]^[182]

??????? ??????

???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????????.^[184] ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????: ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? (??? 212 ?? ???? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???????)? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????. ???????? ???????.^[185] ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????. ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???????^[??????????] ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????????. ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?????: ?? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???????.^[186]^[187]^[188]

?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????????. ???? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????.^[189] ???? ??????? ????????? ??????^[??????????]? ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???.^[190]

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?????? ????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???????^[??????????] (??????) ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????????.^[191] ??? ??? ?????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????.^[192] ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????????.^[193]

??? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????. ??? ??? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????.^[194] ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ????????? ????.^[195] ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????????? (??????????: consilium) ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????????.^[196] ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ????????? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????.^[197] ????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?? ???????. ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????. ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????.^[198]

???? ?????? ??? ?????????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? (??????????: salutatio)? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ???????. ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????.^[199] ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???????.^[200]

??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ??????????.^[201] ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? (???????) ????? ???????? ??????????? ????????.^[202]^[203] ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??????????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????.^[204]

??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ?????. ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????????? (??????????^[??????????]).^[205] ??? ???? ?????????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????. ??? ???? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????. ???? ??? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ???????. ?? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ??????. ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????^[??????????] (?????? - (??????????: Donativum))? ??? ?????? ?????. ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??????????.^[203]

?????

??? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? 20 ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????????. ??? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????. ??????? ???????????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????.^[206] ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????... ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ????.^[207]

???? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? (??????).^[208] ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??:

??????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???????????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????
????? ????????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ????????? (???? ????????)?
???????

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?? ???? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????^[??????????] ??? ???? ????? ?????. ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ??? (??????????^[??????????])? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?? 4.800 ??? 5.280.^[211]

?? ??? 9 ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????. ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? 25 ????. ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? 300 ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?? 30 ??????.^[212] ??? ????? ????? 300?000 ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?? 400?000 ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????. ?? ???? ???? ?? 2? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ?? ????? ???????????.^[213]

???? ????? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????. ??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ???.^[214]

??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ?????????. ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???????? ???? 25 ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???????. ???? ???????^[215] ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???????. ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????? 125.000 ???? ??? ???? ????? ????? 250 ????? ???????.^[216] ???? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????????. ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????.^[217]^[218]

?? ????? ??????? ????????? ((??????????: classis)??????????) ?? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????????. ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????. ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????.^[219]

????? ????????

????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????: ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????.^[220] ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????.^[221] ?? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? 160 ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???????.^[11] ??? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ????????: ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ????^[??????????] ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????^[??????????]. ?? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ????? ???????????? ????? ?? ?????????? ?? ????????? ?????????^[??????????] ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ?????????.^[222] ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????????.^[223] ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??????: ???????? ???????? (???????^[??????????])? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????????^[??????????] ??????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ????.^[223]

?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????.^[11] ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????????. ?? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????.^[224] ??? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????????? ? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????(???????^[??????????]).^[223] ????? ??? ??? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ??????????? ?????? ??? ?????????????^[??????????] ???????? ?? ?????? ????????.^[225]^[226]

??????? ????????

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???? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????^[??????????] ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????????????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ????????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?????????. ???? ????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????.^[99] ???? ???? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? (??????????: mos regionis) (????????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??????) ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????.^[99]^[227] ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ???????.^[228] ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????.^[99]^[229]^[230]

?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????. ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????.^[99] ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ???????????? ??????? ?? ??? 212 ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????????. ????? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????? ?? ???????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????????^[??????????] ??????? ???????????^[??????????]? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????.^[231]

??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?????????^[??????????] ?? ??????? ??????.

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??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????????.^[233] ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????.????? </ref> ????? ???? <ref>

???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? (??????????: portoria) ??????? ???????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????????.^[233] ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??????. ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? 4 ? ??? ??? ???????^[238] ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ???????.^[239] ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? 5 ? ?? ??????.^[240]

??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???? 5? ????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????????. ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? 1? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? (??????? ????????^[??????????] - (??????????: Aerarium militare)).^[233]

????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????. ??? ?????????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????????????.^[45]

????????

??? ???? ?????^[??????????] ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????. ???? ???? ??????? ?????????.^[241] ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????. ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???????.^[242] ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????.^[242] ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????????^[??????????]?^[243] ??? ???? ???????????? ?????? ??????.^[244] ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ?????????.^[245] ?????? ???? ??????? ?????^[??????????]? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? (??????) ??? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????????.^[246] ???? ????? ??? ???????????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????????.^[247] ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????.^[243]

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?????? ????????

???? ???????^{[????? ?????]}

27 ?.?–212 ?:
1 ?????? ????? (1/40 ??? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??? 1/50 ??? ????? ??? 212)
= 25 ???????? ???
= 100 ????????? ??????
= 400 ????^[??????????] ?????
294 ?–312 ?:
1 ??????? ???? (1/60 ??? ?? ?????)
= 10 ????????^[??????????] ????
= 40 ???? ???????
= 1?000 ???????? ?? ?????? ????
312 ? ??? ?????:
1 ??????? ????? (1/72 ???)
= 24 ??????^[??????????] ????
= 180 ???? ????

?? ????? ??????? ?? ???????????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????.^[248] ??? ??????????? ((???????????: sesterces)? ???? ?? ???????? ?? HS) ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? 4 ????????.^[249] ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???????????? ?? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ???????^[??????????].^[250] ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????????.^[251] ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?????? (??????????: pecunia)? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ????????. ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? - ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????. ??? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????^[??????????]? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????????????.^[252] ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????^[??????????].^[248] ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????.^[253]

?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????. ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???????. ??? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???????. ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?????.

??? ????? ????? ????????^{[? 14]} ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????. ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????????.^[255] ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ???????. ??? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??? "?????????" ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????. ?? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ????????????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ??? 33? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? 100 ????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?????? (??????????: menae).^[256] ???? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????. ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????????? ???????.^[257]

?????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????????. ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????????. ?? ????? ????? 200?? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ???. ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? - ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? - ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? 300. ??? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ??????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ???????????? ?? ????? ???? ???????.

??????? ????????

?????

???? ???????????? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????. ???? ????? ?? ???? ????????????? ?? ????? ??????. ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ????.^[4] ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? 70 ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? 21? ?? ???? ?????? ?????. ??? ??? ???? ???? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????????????.

???? ?????

???????

^ ???? ???? ??????? ??? "???????????? ?????????" ??? ?????????? ??????????? ????? ???? Res publica Romana ?? ???? Imperium Romanorum (????? ?? ?????????: Βασιλε?α τ?ν ?ωμα?ων – (??????????: Βασιλε?α τ?ν ?ωμα?ων) – ["????? (?????? '?????' ???? ????? ????? ??'??????????') ??????????"]) ? ???????. Res publica ???? "???????" ??????????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????????????. Imperium Romanum (?? "Romanorum") ???? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????????. Populus Romanus ("????? ????????") ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??????. ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ???????????? ????????? ??????? (???? R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3).
^ ?? ??? 1204 ?1261 ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????????? ??? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ????????????. ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????????.
^ ??? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????.
^ ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????.
^ ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????????? ???????.
^ ??? ???????? ???????????? ??????? (?????????).
^ ?????? ??"HS". ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????????? ???? #?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????.
^ The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of R?m" ((???????? ?????????: ???? ????? ???? ?.?.?'Exalted State of Rome')). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman" Empire survived until the early 20th century. See the following: Roy? Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships. Bloomsbury Studies in Military History. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ?. 37. ISBN:978-1-78093-800-4. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-06. After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome).)
^ Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry, as noted by Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), pp. 73, 203. ?????????, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in ????? ???? (????). See also J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der r?mischen Welt II.17.1 (1981), p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine; Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011) "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome," in The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. John Wiley & Sons; and the Greek concept of globalism (????? ??????? ^{[???? ????]}?).
^ The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman: A.N. Sherwin-White (1979) Roman Citizenship. Oxford University Press. pp. 211 and 268; Frier, pp. 31–32, 457. In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by ???????? ??????? in 197 AD. See Sara Elise Phang, The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army (Brill, 2001), p. 2, and Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 144.
^ That is, a ??? ???????? was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute, slave, or person of marginalized status. See McGinn? Thomas A. J. (1991). "Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery". Transactions of the American Philological Association. ?. 121: 335–375 (342). DOI:10.2307/284457. JSTOR:284457.; ????? ??????? (2002) "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change"; Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p. 124, citing ???????, De adulteriis I and Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. ???? ?????????, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. 104; Edwards, pp. 34–35.
^ The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse." See Wiseman, pp. 78–79.
^ Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain, and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy, were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual. ?????? 3.169, 5.213
^ (??????????: argentarius) ?? (??????????: coctor argentarius) ?? ?????? (??????????: nummularius)

???????

^ Morley? Neville (17 ????? 2010). The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism. ISBN:9780745328706. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Diamond? Jared (4 ????? 2011). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed: Revised Edition. ISBN:9781101502006. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times. Routledge. ISBN:978-0-415-16524-2. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.. Fig. 1. Regions east of the ?????? river were held only in the years 116–117.
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? ^? Taagepera? Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. Duke University Press. ?. 3 ?. 3/4: 125. DOI:10.2307/1170959. ISSN:0145-5532. JSTOR:1170959.
^ Durand? John D. (1977). "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation". Population and Development Review. ?. 3 ?. 3: 253–296. DOI:10.2307/1971891. JSTOR:1971891. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ ^? ^? Turchin? Peter? Adams? Jonathan M.? Hall? Thomas D (2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-systems Research. ?. 12 ?. 2: 222. ISSN:1076-156X. ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2025-08-06. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-06.
^ Kelly, pp. 4ff.
^ ^? ^? Nicolet, pp. 1, 15
^ Brennan, T. Corey (2000) The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 605.
^ Peachin, pp. 39–40.
^ ^? ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 179.
^ ^? ^? Hekster, Olivier and Kaizer, Ted (2011). Preface to Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durhan, 16–19 April 2009). Brill. p. viii.
^ Lintott, Andrew ^{[???? ????]}? (1999) The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 114
^ Eder, W. (1993) "The Augustan Principate as Binding Link," in Between Republic and Empire. University of California Press. p. 98. (???? 0520084470).
^ Richardson, John (2011) "Fines provinciae", in Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. p. 10.
^ Richardson, John (2011) "Fines provinciae"?Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. pp. 1–2.
^ Syme, Ronald (1939) The Roman Revolution. Oford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–4.
^ Boatwright, Mary T. (2000) Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 4.
^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ???? ?????? 2025-08-06 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Gibbon? Edward (1776)? "The Decline And Fall in the West – Chapter 4"? The History of the Decline And Fall of the Roman Empire.
^ Goldsworthy 2009, p. 50
^ Brown, P., The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, p. 22.
^ Goldsworthy 2009 pp. 405–415.
^ Potter, David. The Roman Empire at Bay. 296–98.
^ Starr, Chester G. (1974) A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press. pp. 670–678.
^ Isaac Asimov (1989) Asimov's Chronology of the World, p. 110, New York, NY, USA: HarperCollins.
^ Scholl, Christian (2017). Transcultural approaches to the concept of imperial rule in the Middle Ages (???????????). Peter Lang AG. ISBN:978-3-653-05232-9. JSTOR:j.ctv6zdbwx. Odoacer, who dethroned the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, neither used the imperial insignia nor the colour purple, which was used by the emperor in Byzantium only.
^ Peter? Heather. "The Fall of Rome". BBC. BBC. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-06.
^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Gothic Kingdom Of Italy.—Part II.". The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (???????????). England: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 2025-08-06. The republic (they repeat that name without a blush) might safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odoacer; and they humbly request, that the emperor would invest him with the title of Patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy."", "His vanity was gratified by the title of sole emperor, and by the statues erected to his honor in the several quarters of Rome; "he entertained a friendly, though ambiguous, correspondence with the patrician Odoacer; and he gratefully accepted the Imperial ensigns
^ Mehmet II by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007. ???? ?????? 28 ?????? 2019 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Cartwright? Mark (23 ????? 2018). "1453: The Fall of Constantinople". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-06.
^ Lezioni di filologia petrarchesca - Giuseppe Billanovich - Google Libri ???? ?????? 27 ????? 2018 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History - Bloomsbury Publishing - Google Libri ???? ?????? 26 ????? 2018 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Kelly, p. 3.
^ Nicolet, p. 29
^ Vergil, Aeneid 1.278
^ Mattingly, David J. (2011) Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 15
^ Moretti, G. (1993) "The Other World and the 'Antipodes': The Myth of Unknown Countries between Antiquity and the Renaissance," in The Classical Tradition and the Americas: European Images of the Americas. Walter de Gruyter. p. 257
^ ^? ^? ^? Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. ?. 14–16. ISBN:978-0-415-23943-1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Mosley? Stephen (2010). The Environment in World History. Routledge. ?. 35. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Nicolet, pp. 7–8.
^ Nicolet, pp. 9, 16.
^ Nicolet, pp. 10–11.
^ Kelly, p. 1.
^ ^? ^? ^? Morris, p. 184.
^ Goldsmith? Raymond W. (2005). "An Estimate of the Size Anl Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire". Review of Income and Wealth. ?. 30 ?. 3: 263. DOI:10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x.
^ Scheidel, Walter (April 2006) "Population and demography" in Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, p. 9 ???? ?????? 13 ?????? 2018 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Hanson, J. W.; Ortman, S. G. (2017). "A systematic method for estimating the populations of Greek and Roman settlements". Journal of Roman Archaeology (???????????). 30: 301–324. DOI:10.1017/S1047759400074134. ISSN:1047-7594. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06.
^ Boardman, p. 721.
^ Woolf, Greg (ed.) (2003) Cambridge Illustrated History of the Roman World. Cambridge: Ivy Press. p. 340
^ Opper, Thorsten (2008) Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Harvard University Press. p. 64
^ Fields, Nic (2003) Hadrian's Wall AD 122–410, which was, of course, at the bottom of Hadrian's garden. Osprey Publishing. p. 35.
^ Vergil, Aeneid 12.834 and 837
^ Rochette, pp. 549, 563
^ Adams, p. 184.
^ Adams, pp. 186–187.
^ Rochette, pp. 554, 556.
^ Rochette, p. 549
^ Freeman, Charles (1999) The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York: Penguin. pp. 389–433.
^ Rochette, p. 549, citing ???????, Life of Alexander 47.6.
^ ?????? ???? (2006) A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). University of California Press. p. 279. (???? 0520941411).
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? Treadgold, Warren (1997) A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. pp. 5–7. (???? 0804726302).
^ Rochette, p. 553.
^ ??????, In Catilinam 2.15, P.Ryl. I 61 "???? ?????? ????? ?????".
^ Rochette, pp. 550–552.
^ ^? ^? Rochette, p. 552.
^ ?????????, Life of Claudius 42.
^ Rochette, pp. 553–554.
^ Rochette, p. 556
^ Adams, p. 200.
^ Adams, pp. 185–186, 205.
^ Rochette, p. 560.
^ Rochette, pp. 562–563.
^ Rochette, pp. 558–559.
^ ^? ^? ^? Miles, Richard (2000) "Communicating Culture, Identity, and Power," in Experiencing Power: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire. Routledge. pp. 58–60. (???? 0415212855).
^ Adams, p. 199.
^ Rochette, pp. 553–555.
^ Rochette, p. 550
^ Stefan Zimmer, "Indo-European," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 961
^ Curchin? Leonard A. (1995). "Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain". The American Journal of Philology. ?. 116 ?. 3: 461–476 (464). DOI:10.2307/295333. JSTOR:295333.
^ Waquet, Fran?oise (2001) Latin, Or, The Empire of the Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century. Verso. pp. 1–2. (???? 1859844022).
^ Jensen, Kristian (1996) "The Humanist Reform of Latin and Latin Teaching," in The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 63–64. (???? 0521436249).
^ Fine, John V. A.? Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan Press. ?. 10–11. ISBN:978-0-472-08149-3. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Digest 31.1.11; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.
^ ^? ^? Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.
^ Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 192.
^ Jerome, commentary on the ??????? ??? ??? ??????; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.
^ Laurence Hélix. Histoire de la langue fran?aise. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. ?. 7. ISBN:978-2-7298-6470-5. Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.
^ ε? δ? π?νυ ?βι?ζετο, Γαλατιστ? ?φθ?γγετο. ‘If he was forced to, he spoke in Galatian’ (Vita S. Euthymii 55; after Eugenio Luján, ‘The Galatian Place Names in Ptolemy’, in: Javier de Hoz, Eugenio R. Luján, Patrick Sims-Williams (eds.), New Approaches to Celtic Place-Names in Ptolemy's Geography, Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas 2005, 264).
^ Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galat? vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galat? in the Gallic tongue,
^ ^? ^? ^? Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies: 106. {{??????? ?????? ?????}}: ????? ?????? ?????? |agency= ???? ??? ????? (??????)
^ Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
^ Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
^ Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Fran?ais-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. ?. 26.
^ Adams, J. N. (2007). "Chapter V – Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul". The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge. ?. 279–289. DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511482977. ISBN:9780511482977.{{??????? ?????}}: ????? ?????????: ???? ???? ???? (link)
^ Peachin, p. 12.
^ Peachin, p. 16.
^ Peachin, p. 9.
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? ^? Garnsey, Peter and Saller, Richard (1987) The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. University of California Press. pp. 107–111.
^ Nore?a, Carlos F. (2011) Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.
^ Peachin, pp. 4–5.
^ Winterling, pp. 11, 21.
^ Saller, Richard P. (1982, 2002) Personal Patronage under the Early Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123, 176, 183
^ Duncan, Anne (2006) Performance and Identity in the Classical World. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.
^ Reinhold, Meyer (2002) Studies in Classical History and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 25ff. and 42.
^ Boardman, p. 18.
^ Peachin, pp. 17, 20.
^ Millar, pp. 81–82
^ Carroll, Maureen (2006) Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–46.
^ Frier, p. 14
^ Gaius, Institutiones 1.9 = Digest 1.5.3.
^ Frier, pp. 31–32.
^ Potter (2009), p. 177.
^ Rawson (1987), p. 18.
^ Frier, pp. 19–20.
^ ???? ?????????, Pandora's Daughters: The Role and Status of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 140–141
^ Sullivan, J.P. (1979). "Martial's Sexual Attitudes". Philologus. ?. 123 ?. 1–2: 296. DOI:10.1524/phil.1979.123.12.288.
^ Rawson (1987), p. 15.
^ Frier, pp. 19–20, 22.
^ Treggiari, Susan (1991) Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian. Oxford University Press. pp. 258–259, 500–502. (???? 0198149395).
^ Johnston, David (1999) Roman Law in Context. Cambridge University Press. Ch. 3.3
^ Frier, Ch. IV
^ Thomas, Yan (1991) "The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law," in A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints. Harvard University Press. p. 134.
^ Severy, Beth (2002) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire. Routledge. p. 12. (???? 1134391838).
^ Severy, Beth (2002) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire. Routledge. p. 4. (???? 1134391838).
^ Frier, p. 461
^ Boardman, p. 733.
^ Woodhull, Margaret L. (2004) "Matronly Patrons in the Early Roman Empire: The Case of Salvia Postuma," in Women's Influence on Classical Civilization. Routledge. p. 77.
^ Bradley, p. 12.
^ The others are ???????? ??? ???????, and in the modern era ???????? ?? ????????, the ???????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????????, and the ???????? ?? ???????? ???????? Bradley, p. 12.
^ Bradley, p. 15.
^ ^? ^? Harris? W. V. (1999). "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves". The Journal of Roman Studies. ?. 89: 62–75. DOI:10.2307/300734. JSTOR:300734.
^ Taylor? Timothy (2010). "Believing the ancients: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia". World Archaeology. ?. 33 ?. 1: 27–43. arXiv:0706.4406. DOI:10.1080/00438240120047618. JSTOR:827887.
^ Harper, Kyle (2011) Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–16.
^ Frier, p. 7.
^ McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998) Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 314. (???? 0195161327).
^ Gardner, Jane F. (1991) Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. p. 119.
^ Frier, pp. 31, 33.
^ Fuhrmann, C. J. (2012) Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–41. (???? 0199737843).
^ Frier, p. 21.
^ Gamauf? Richard (2009). "Slaves doing business: The role of Roman law in the economy of a Roman household". European Review of History: Revue europeenne d'histoire. ?. 16 ?. 3: 331–346. DOI:10.1080/13507480902916837.
^ Bradley, pp. 2–3.
^ McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998) Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. pp. 288ff. (???? 0195161327).
^ Abusch, Ra'anan (2003) "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire," in The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. pp. 77–78
^ Sch?fer, Peter (1983, 2003) The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. p. 150.
^ Frier, p. 15
^ Goodwin, Stefan (2009). Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion. Lexington Books. Vol. 1, p. 41, (???? 0739117262), noting that "Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system".
^ Noy? David (2000). Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. ISBN:9780715629529.
^ Harper? James (1972). "Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome". American Journal of Philology. ?. 93 ?. 2: 341–342. DOI:10.2307/293259. JSTOR:293259. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Rawson (1987), pp. 186–188, 190
^ Bradley, p. 34, 48–50.
^ Bradley, p. 10.
^ ?????? ???? (1998, 2002) The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic. University of Michigan. pp. 23, 209. (???? 0472088785).
^ Mouritsen, Henrik (2011) The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 36
^ ^? ^? Berger, Adolf (1953, 1991). libertus in Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. American Philological Society. p. 564.
^ Boardman, pp. 217–218
^ Syme, Ronald (1999) Provincial at Rome: and Rome and the Balkans 80 BC – AD 14. University of Exeter Press. pp. 12–13. (???? 0859896323).
^ Boardman, pp. 215, 221–222
^ Millar, p. 88. The standard complement of 600 was flexible; twenty ???????s, for instance, held office each year and were thus admitted to the Senate regardless of whether there were "open" seats.
^ ^? ^? Millar, p. 88.
^ Boardman, pp. 218–219.
^ ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????????; Boardman, p. 219.
^ MacMullen? Ramsay (1966). "Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire". The American Journal of Philology. ?. 87 ?. 1: 1–17. DOI:10.2307/292973. JSTOR:292973.
^ Wiseman, pp. 71–72, 76
^ Wiseman, pp. 75–76, 78.
^ Fear, Andrew (2007) "War and Society," in The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire. Cambridge University Press, vol. 2. pp. 214–215. (???? 0521782740).
^ Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times. Routledge. ?. 5. ISBN:978-0-415-16524-2. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Morris, p. 188
^ Millar, pp. 87–88.
^ Millar, p. 96.
^ Liebeschuetz, Wolfgang (2001) "The End of the Ancient City," in The City in Late Antiquity. Taylor & Francis. pp. 26–27.
^ Millar, p. 90, calls them "status-appellations."
^ Millar, p. 91.
^ Millar, p. 90.
^ ^? ^? Verboven, Koenraad (2007). "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire". Athenaeum. ?. 95: 870–72. hdl:1854/LU-395187. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? Peachin, pp. 153–154
^ Perkins, Judith (2009) Early Christian and Judicial Bodies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 245–246
^ Peachin, p. 475.
^ Gaughan, Judy E. (2010) Murder Was Not a Crime: Homicide and Power in the Roman Republic. University of Texas Press. p. 91. (???? 0292725671).
^ Kelly, Gordon P. (2006) A History of Exile in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. (???? 0521848601).
^ Coleman? K. M. (2012). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". Journal of Roman Studies. ?. 80: 44–73. DOI:10.2307/300280. JSTOR:300280.
^ Robinson, O.F. (2007) Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome. Routledge. p. 108.
^ The imperial cult in Roman Britain-Google docs
^ Bohec, p. 8.
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^ Luttwak, Edward ^{[???? ????]}? (1976/1979) The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, ????? ????? ???? ???????. p. 30. (???? 0-8018-2158-4).
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^ Boardman, p. 215.
^ Boardman, p. 215
^ ^? ^? Winterling, p. 16.
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^ Goldsworthy 2003, p. 80.
^ Edmondson, pp. 111–112.
^ Tignor? Robert? ?????? (2011). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: The History of the World (?. 3). W.W. Norton & Company. ?. 262. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
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^ Rome and Her Enemies published by Osprey, 2005, part 3: Early Empire 27BC–AD235, Ch. 9: The Romans, section: Remuneration, p. 183; (???? 978-1-84603-336-0)
^ ?????? ???????? IV.5
^ Goldsworthy 2003, p. 51.
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^ Potter (2009), p. 183.
^ Potter (2009), pp. 177–179. ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??????.
^ Potter (2009), p. 179. ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ?????: ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????.
^ ^? ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 180.
^ Potter (2009), pp. 179, 187.
^ Potter (2009), p. 180
^ Fuhrmann, C. J. (2012) Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press. pp. 197, 214, 224. (???? 0199737843).
^ Potter (2009), pp. 184–185.
^ Bozeman, Adda B. (2010) Politics and Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age. Transaction Publishers. 2nd ed.. pp. 208–20
^ Potter (2009), pp. 184–185
^ ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????^[??????????] ????? ???????? ?? 80-90 ?.?.
^ Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000) The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome. Cornell University Press. p. 53.
^ ???????????? ?????????, p. 183.
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 187.
^ Potter (2009), pp. 185–187.
^ Potter (2009), p. 185
^ Potter (2009), p. 185.
^ Potter (2009), p. 188.
^ ?????? ??? 55.31.4.
^ ??????, Annales 13.31.2.
^ This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"; Potter (2009), p. 187.
^ Potter (2009), p. 283.
^ ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 285.
^ ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 286.
^ Potter (2009), p. 292.
^ Potter (2009), pp. 285–286, 296ff.
^ Potter (2009), p. 296.
^ Potter (2009), pp. 286, 295.
^ ^? ^? Kessler, David and Temin, Peter (2010) "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans. Oxford University Press.
^ Harl, Kenneth W. (19 ????? 1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. JHU Press. ?. 125–135. ISBN:978-0-8018-5291-6. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.
^ Bowman, p. 333.
^ Colin Wells, The Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 1984, 1992), p. 8.
^ Harris, W. V. ^{[???? ????]}? (2010) "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans. Oxford University Press. (???? 0199586713).
^ Scheidel, Walter (2009) "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", in: Scheidel, Walter, ed. Rome and China. Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires. Oxford University Press. (???? 978-0-19-533690-0), pp. 137–207 (205).
^ Fears, J. Rufus (1981) "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," Aufstieg und Niedergang der r?mischen Welt II.17.2, pp. 752 and 824, and in the same volume, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," p. 908.
^ Andreau, Jean (1999) Banking and Business in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.
^ Tacitus, Annales 6.17.3.
^ Duncan-Jones, Richard (1994) Money and Government in the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–4.

?????? "???? ???????7" ??????? ?? <references> ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????.
?????? "an" ??????? ?? <references> ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????.
?????? "ritti" ??????? ?? <references> ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????.
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?????? "???? ???????9" ??????? ?? <references> ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????.

?????? "???? ???????10" ??????? ?? <references> ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????.

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Romans for Children? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????????.
????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??? Vici.org
???? ?????? ???? ???? ???????????? ?????????.
Roman-Empire.net? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????
?????? ???????? ?? ??? 400 ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ?????????

[1] ???? ???? ??????? ??? "???????????? ?????????" ??? ?????????? ??????????? ????? ???? Res publica Romana ?? ???? Imperium Romanorum (????? ?? ?????????: Βασιλε?α τ?ν ?ωμα?ων – (??????????: Βασιλε?α τ?ν ?ωμα?ων) – ["????? (?????? '?????' ???? ????? ????? ??'??????????') ??????????"]) ? ???????. Res publica ???? "???????" ??????????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????????????. Imperium Romanum (?? "Romanorum") ???? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????????. Populus Romanus ("????? ????????") ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??????. ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ???????????? ????????? ??????? (???? R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3).

[5] ?? ??? 1204 ?1261 ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????????? ??? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ????????????. ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????????.

[6] ??? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????.

[7] ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????.

[8] ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????????? ???????.

[9] ??? ???????? ???????????? ??????? (?????????).

[13] ?????? ??"HS". ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????????? ???? #?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????.

[14] The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of R?m" ((???????? ?????????: ???? ????? ???? ?.?.?'Exalted State of Rome')). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman" Empire survived until the early 20th century. See the following: Roy? Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships. Bloomsbury Studies in Military History. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ?. 37. ISBN:978-1-78093-800-4. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-06. After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome).)

[48] Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry, as noted by Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), pp. 73, 203. ?????????, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in ????? ???? (????). See also J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der r?mischen Welt II.17.1 (1981), p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine; Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011) "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome," in The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. John Wiley & Sons; and the Greek concept of globalism (????? ??????? ^{[???? ????]}?).

[123] The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman: A.N. Sherwin-White (1979) Roman Citizenship. Oxford University Press. pp. 211 and 268; Frier, pp. 31–32, 457. In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by ???????? ??????? in 197 AD. See Sara Elise Phang, The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army (Brill, 2001), p. 2, and Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 144.

[136] That is, a ??? ???????? was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute, slave, or person of marginalized status. See McGinn? Thomas A. J. (1991). "Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery". Transactions of the American Philological Association. ?. 121: 335–375 (342). DOI:10.2307/284457. JSTOR:284457.; ????? ??????? (2002) "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change"; Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p. 124, citing ???????, De adulteriis I and Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. ???? ?????????, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. 104; Edwards, pp. 34–35.

[175] The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse." See Wiseman, pp. 78–79.

[177] Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain, and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy, were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual. ?????? 3.169, 5.213

[268] (??????????: argentarius) ?? (??????????: coctor argentarius) ?? ?????? (??????????: nummularius)

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[15] Kelly, pp. 4ff.

[n1-16] ? ^? Nicolet, pp. 1, 15

[17] Brennan, T. Corey (2000) The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 605.

[18] Peachin, pp. 39–40.

[Ando_p._179-19] ? ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 179.

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[21] Lintott, Andrew ^{[???? ????]}? (1999) The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 114

[22] Eder, W. (1993) "The Augustan Principate as Binding Link," in Between Republic and Empire. University of California Press. p. 98. (???? 0520084470).

[23] Richardson, John (2011) "Fines provinciae", in Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. p. 10.

[24] Richardson, John (2011) "Fines provinciae"?Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. pp. 1–2.

[25] Syme, Ronald (1939) The Roman Revolution. Oford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–4.

[26] Boatwright, Mary T. (2000) Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 4.

[27] Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ???? ?????? 2025-08-06 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

[Commodus-Gibbon-28] Gibbon? Edward (1776)? "The Decline And Fall in the West – Chapter 4"? The History of the Decline And Fall of the Roman Empire.

[29] Goldsworthy 2009, p. 50

[30] Brown, P., The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, p. 22.

[31] Goldsworthy 2009 pp. 405–415.

[32] Potter, David. The Roman Empire at Bay. 296–98.

[33] Starr, Chester G. (1974) A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press. pp. 670–678.

[34] Isaac Asimov (1989) Asimov's Chronology of the World, p. 110, New York, NY, USA: HarperCollins.

[35] Scholl, Christian (2017). Transcultural approaches to the concept of imperial rule in the Middle Ages (???????????). Peter Lang AG. ISBN:978-3-653-05232-9. JSTOR:j.ctv6zdbwx. Odoacer, who dethroned the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, neither used the imperial insignia nor the colour purple, which was used by the emperor in Byzantium only.

[36] Peter? Heather. "The Fall of Rome". BBC. BBC. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-06.

[37] Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Gothic Kingdom Of Italy.—Part II.". The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (???????????). England: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 2025-08-06. The republic (they repeat that name without a blush) might safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odoacer; and they humbly request, that the emperor would invest him with the title of Patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy."", "His vanity was gratified by the title of sole emperor, and by the statues erected to his honor in the several quarters of Rome; "he entertained a friendly, though ambiguous, correspondence with the patrician Odoacer; and he gratefully accepted the Imperial ensigns

[38] Mehmet II by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007. ???? ?????? 28 ?????? 2019 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

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[41] Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History - Bloomsbury Publishing - Google Libri ???? ?????? 26 ????? 2018 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

[k3-42] Kelly, p. 3.

[????_???????1-43] Nicolet, p. 29

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[45] Mattingly, David J. (2011) Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 15

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[66] Rochette, pp. 554, 556.

[67] Rochette, p. 549

[68] Freeman, Charles (1999) The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York: Penguin. pp. 389–433.

[69] Rochette, p. 549, citing ???????, Life of Alexander 47.6.

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[72] Rochette, p. 553.

[73] ??????, In Catilinam 2.15, P.Ryl. I 61 "???? ?????? ????? ?????".

[74] Rochette, pp. 550–552.

[Rochette_p._552-75] ? ^? Rochette, p. 552.

[76] ?????????, Life of Claudius 42.

[77] Rochette, pp. 553–554.

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[79] Adams, p. 200.

[80] Adams, pp. 185–186, 205.

[81] Rochette, p. 560.

[82] Rochette, pp. 562–563.

[83] Rochette, pp. 558–559.

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[85] Adams, p. 199.

[86] Rochette, pp. 553–555.

[87] Rochette, p. 550

[88] Stefan Zimmer, "Indo-European," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 961

[curchin-89] Curchin? Leonard A. (1995). "Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain". The American Journal of Philology. ?. 116 ?. 3: 461–476 (464). DOI:10.2307/295333. JSTOR:295333.

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[93] Digest 31.1.11; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.

[Lambert10-94] ? ^? Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.

[95] Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 192.

[96] Jerome, commentary on the ??????? ??? ??? ??????; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.

[????_???????3-97] Laurence Hélix. Histoire de la langue fran?aise. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. ?. 7. ISBN:978-2-7298-6470-5. Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.

[98] ε? δ? π?νυ ?βι?ζετο, Γαλατιστ? ?φθ?γγετο. ‘If he was forced to, he spoke in Galatian’ (Vita S. Euthymii 55; after Eugenio Luján, ‘The Galatian Place Names in Ptolemy’, in: Javier de Hoz, Eugenio R. Luján, Patrick Sims-Williams (eds.), New Approaches to Celtic Place-Names in Ptolemy's Geography, Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas 2005, 264).

[99] Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galat? vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galat? in the Gallic tongue,

[Matas-100] ? ^? ^? Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies: 106. {{??????? ?????? ?????}}: ????? ?????? ?????? |agency= ???? ??? ????? (??????)

[101] Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.

[102] Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.

[????_???????4-103] Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Fran?ais-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. ?. 26.

[Adams-104] Adams, J. N. (2007). "Chapter V – Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul". The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge. ?. 279–289. DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511482977. ISBN:9780511482977.{{??????? ?????}}: ????? ?????????: ???? ???? ???? (link)

[105] Peachin, p. 12.

[106] Peachin, p. 16.

[107] Peachin, p. 9.

[Garnsey-108] ? ^? ^? ^? ^? Garnsey, Peter and Saller, Richard (1987) The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. University of California Press. pp. 107–111.

[109] Nore?a, Carlos F. (2011) Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.

[110] Peachin, pp. 4–5.

[111] Winterling, pp. 11, 21.

[112] Saller, Richard P. (1982, 2002) Personal Patronage under the Early Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123, 176, 183

[113] Duncan, Anne (2006) Performance and Identity in the Classical World. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.

[114] Reinhold, Meyer (2002) Studies in Classical History and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 25ff. and 42.

[115] Boardman, p. 18.

[116] Peachin, pp. 17, 20.

[117] Millar, pp. 81–82

[118] Carroll, Maureen (2006) Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–46.

[119] Frier, p. 14

[120] Gaius, Institutiones 1.9 = Digest 1.5.3.

[121] Frier, pp. 31–32.

[122] Potter (2009), p. 177.

[124] Rawson (1987), p. 18.

[125] Frier, pp. 19–20.

[126] ???? ?????????, Pandora's Daughters: The Role and Status of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 140–141

[127] Sullivan, J.P. (1979). "Martial's Sexual Attitudes". Philologus. ?. 123 ?. 1–2: 296. DOI:10.1524/phil.1979.123.12.288.

[128] Rawson (1987), p. 15.

[129] Frier, pp. 19–20, 22.

[130] Treggiari, Susan (1991) Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian. Oxford University Press. pp. 258–259, 500–502. (???? 0198149395).

[131] Johnston, David (1999) Roman Law in Context. Cambridge University Press. Ch. 3.3

[132] Frier, Ch. IV

[133] Thomas, Yan (1991) "The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law," in A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints. Harvard University Press. p. 134.

[134] Severy, Beth (2002) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire. Routledge. p. 12. (???? 1134391838).

[135] Severy, Beth (2002) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire. Routledge. p. 4. (???? 1134391838).

[137] Frier, p. 461

[138] Boardman, p. 733.

[139] Woodhull, Margaret L. (2004) "Matronly Patrons in the Early Roman Empire: The Case of Salvia Postuma," in Women's Influence on Classical Civilization. Routledge. p. 77.

[140] Bradley, p. 12.

[141] The others are ???????? ??? ???????, and in the modern era ???????? ?? ????????, the ???????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????????, and the ???????? ?? ???????? ???????? Bradley, p. 12.

[142] Bradley, p. 15.

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[144] Taylor? Timothy (2010). "Believing the ancients: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia". World Archaeology. ?. 33 ?. 1: 27–43. arXiv:0706.4406. DOI:10.1080/00438240120047618. JSTOR:827887.

[145] Harper, Kyle (2011) Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–16.

[146] Frier, p. 7.

[147] McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998) Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 314. (???? 0195161327).

[148] Gardner, Jane F. (1991) Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. p. 119.

[149] Frier, pp. 31, 33.

[150] Fuhrmann, C. J. (2012) Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–41. (???? 0199737843).

[151] Frier, p. 21.

[152] Gamauf? Richard (2009). "Slaves doing business: The role of Roman law in the economy of a Roman household". European Review of History: Revue europeenne d'histoire. ?. 16 ?. 3: 331–346. DOI:10.1080/13507480902916837.

[153] Bradley, pp. 2–3.

[154] McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998) Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. pp. 288ff. (???? 0195161327).

[155] Abusch, Ra'anan (2003) "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire," in The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. pp. 77–78

[156] Sch?fer, Peter (1983, 2003) The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. p. 150.

[157] Frier, p. 15

[158] Goodwin, Stefan (2009). Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion. Lexington Books. Vol. 1, p. 41, (???? 0739117262), noting that "Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system".

[159] Noy? David (2000). Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. ISBN:9780715629529.

[160] Harper? James (1972). "Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome". American Journal of Philology. ?. 93 ?. 2: 341–342. DOI:10.2307/293259. JSTOR:293259. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.

[161] Rawson (1987), pp. 186–188, 190

[162] Bradley, p. 34, 48–50.

[163] Bradley, p. 10.

[164] ?????? ???? (1998, 2002) The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic. University of Michigan. pp. 23, 209. (???? 0472088785).

[165] Mouritsen, Henrik (2011) The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 36

[berger-166] ? ^? Berger, Adolf (1953, 1991). libertus in Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. American Philological Society. p. 564.

[167] Boardman, pp. 217–218

[168] Syme, Ronald (1999) Provincial at Rome: and Rome and the Balkans 80 BC – AD 14. University of Exeter Press. pp. 12–13. (???? 0859896323).

[169] Boardman, pp. 215, 221–222

[170] Millar, p. 88. The standard complement of 600 was flexible; twenty ???????s, for instance, held office each year and were thus admitted to the Senate regardless of whether there were "open" seats.

[Millar,_Empire_and_City,_p._88-171] ? ^? Millar, p. 88.

[172] Boardman, pp. 218–219.

[173] ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????????; Boardman, p. 219.

[174] MacMullen? Ramsay (1966). "Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire". The American Journal of Philology. ?. 87 ?. 1: 1–17. DOI:10.2307/292973. JSTOR:292973.

[176] Wiseman, pp. 71–72, 76

[178] Wiseman, pp. 75–76, 78.

[179] Fear, Andrew (2007) "War and Society," in The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire. Cambridge University Press, vol. 2. pp. 214–215. (???? 0521782740).

[180] Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times. Routledge. ?. 5. ISBN:978-0-415-16524-2. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.

[181] Morris, p. 188

[182] Millar, pp. 87–88.

[183] Millar, p. 96.

[184] Liebeschuetz, Wolfgang (2001) "The End of the Ancient City," in The City in Late Antiquity. Taylor & Francis. pp. 26–27.

[185] Millar, p. 90, calls them "status-appellations."

[186] Millar, p. 91.

[187] Millar, p. 90.

[verb-188] ? ^? Verboven, Koenraad (2007). "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire". Athenaeum. ?. 95: 870–72. hdl:1854/LU-395187. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.

[p153-189] ? ^? ^? ^? Peachin, pp. 153–154

[190] Perkins, Judith (2009) Early Christian and Judicial Bodies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 245–246

[191] Peachin, p. 475.

[192] Gaughan, Judy E. (2010) Murder Was Not a Crime: Homicide and Power in the Roman Republic. University of Texas Press. p. 91. (???? 0292725671).

[193] Kelly, Gordon P. (2006) A History of Exile in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. (???? 0521848601).

[fatal-194] Coleman? K. M. (2012). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". Journal of Roman Studies. ?. 80: 44–73. DOI:10.2307/300280. JSTOR:300280.

[195] Robinson, O.F. (2007) Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome. Routledge. p. 108.

[196] The imperial cult in Roman Britain-Google docs

[197] Bohec, p. 8.

[198] Bohec, pp. 14–15.

[199] ???????, Moralia Moralia 813c and 814c

[200] Potter (2009), pp. 181–182

[201] Luttwak, Edward ^{[???? ????]}? (1976/1979) The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, ????? ????? ???? ???????. p. 30. (???? 0-8018-2158-4).

[202] Potter (2009), p. 184.

[203] Potter (2009), p. 181.

[Abbott,_354-204] Abbott, p. 354

[Abbott,_345-205] Abbott, p. 345

[Abbott,_341-206] Abbott, p. 341

[207] ?????? ???? (2004) "Emperors at Work," in Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire. University of North Carolina Press. Vol. 2. (???? 0807855200). pp. 3–22, especially pp. 4 and 20.

[208] Boardman, p. 195ff.

[209] Boardman, pp. 205–209.

[210] Boardman, pp. 202–203, 205, 210.

[211] Boardman, p. 211.

[212] Boardman, p. 212.

[213] Millar, p. 76.

[214] Boardman, p. 215.

[215] Boardman, p. 215

[auto1-216] ? ^? Winterling, p. 16.

[217] Morris, p. 188.

[218] Goldsworthy 2003, p. 80.

[219] Edmondson, pp. 111–112.

[220] Tignor? Robert? ?????? (2011). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: The History of the World (?. 3). W.W. Norton & Company. ?. 262. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-06.

[221] Hekster, Olivier J. (2007) "Fighting for Rome: The Emperor as a Military Leader," in Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC–AD 476). Brill. p. 96.

[222] Bohec, p. 9.

[223] Bohec, pp. 10–14.

[224] Roth, J. (1994). "The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Legion". Historia. ?. 43 ?. 3: 346–362. JSTOR:4436338.

[225] Goldsworthy 2003, p. 183.

[auto2-226] Morris, p. 196.

[227] Rome and Her Enemies published by Osprey, 2005, part 3: Early Empire 27BC–AD235, Ch. 9: The Romans, section: Remuneration, p. 183; (???? 978-1-84603-336-0)

[228] ?????? ???????? IV.5

[229] Goldsworthy 2003, p. 51.

[230] Connolly? Peter (1986). "A Reconstruction of a Roman Saddle". Britannia. ?. 17: 353–355. DOI:10.2307/526559. JSTOR:526559.

[231] Connolly? Peter? Van Driel-Murray? Carol (1991). "The Roman Cavalry Saddle". Britannia. ?. 22: 33–50. DOI:10.2307/526629. JSTOR:526629.

[232] Goldsworthy 2003, p. 114.

[233] Potter (2009), p. 183.

[234] Potter (2009), pp. 177–179. ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??????.

[235] Potter (2009), p. 179. ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ?????: ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????.

[Ando_p._180-236] ? ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 180.

[237] Potter (2009), pp. 179, 187.

[238] Potter (2009), p. 180

[239] Fuhrmann, C. J. (2012) Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press. pp. 197, 214, 224. (???? 0199737843).

[240] Potter (2009), pp. 184–185.

[241] Bozeman, Adda B. (2010) Politics and Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age. Transaction Publishers. 2nd ed.. pp. 208–20

[242] Potter (2009), pp. 184–185

[243] ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????^[??????????] ????? ???????? ?? 80-90 ?.?.

[244] Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000) The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome. Cornell University Press. p. 53.

[m183-245] ???????????? ?????????, p. 183.

[Ando_p._187-246] ? ^? ^? ^? Potter (2009), p. 187.

[247] Potter (2009), pp. 185–187.

[248] Potter (2009), p. 185

[249] Potter (2009), p. 185.

[administration188-250] Potter (2009), p. 188.

[251] ?????? ??? 55.31.4.

[252] ??????, Annales 13.31.2.

[253] This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"; Potter (2009), p. 187.

[254] Potter (2009), p. 283.

[Mattingly_p._285-255] ? ^? Potter (2009), p. 285.

[Mattingly_p._286-256] ? ^? Potter (2009), p. 286.

[257] Potter (2009), p. 292.

[258] Potter (2009), pp. 285–286, 296ff.

[259] Potter (2009), p. 296.

[260] Potter (2009), pp. 286, 295.

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[264] Colin Wells, The Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 1984, 1992), p. 8.

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[267] Fears, J. Rufus (1981) "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," Aufstieg und Niedergang der r?mischen Welt II.17.2, pp. 752 and 824, and in the same volume, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," p. 908.

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